How A CPU Works

How does a CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a computer really work? Well, this article will exactly how it works. Understanding this fundamental concept will help you in grasping the overall concepts of computing much more easily.

The concept of a CPU is not really that difficult to understand - although I know some folks make it appear more complicated than it has to be.
Instructions in a computer are stored in memory. The CPU fetches these instructions and executes them. It then decodes the instruction and sends the task to the appropriate unit (e.g. hard disk, display). The speed at which a CPU can perform the above tasks indicate the CPU's performance.
Read on and find out more about how a CPU works ...
   


Some CPUs available in the market

1. Instructions are Stored in Memory

The first thing to understand about CPUs is this - when programs run, their instructions are stored in memory. The CPU fetches instructions from the computer's memory to execute.
 

2. CPU Decodes the Instruction

The next step is for the processor to understand or decode the instruction and determine what it has to do. Usually what happens is that the CPU will do some form of computation, then stores it back to memory, the disk, or the display.
 

3. How Many Instructions?

One question is, how many instructions can the CPU execution per second? Well, this is determined by a of factors, including:

• How large is the instruction contained in memory
   
• How long it takes for the instruction to reach the CPU.
   
• How long the processor takes to compute and crunch the instructions.
   
• How long it takes to output the result of the processing.

Essentially, the number of instructions a CPU can execute per second is an indication of its speed and performance.
 

Conclusion

Hopefully, this article has helped you understand how a CPU works. The CPU is a central part of any computer system and it is certainly useful to grasp its inner workings well.

  

How To Transfer Data From One Hard Drive To Another

Did you know that trying to transfer data from one hard drive to another is a big computing headache? I always face this problem when I try to upgrade my system or build a new computer. How do I ever get the data in my old hard disk into the new one? Well, this article shows you how you can do this. The simplest way is to use a disk imaging tool. A disk imaging tool is a computer builder's secret weapon for quickly moving data from one computer to the next. Make sure you familiarize yourself with these tools as they will save you a lot of time.

We will look at one of them and see how it works, so read on ...
1. Choose Your Tool

Before you start trying to transfer data from one hard drive to another, you need a proper tool. Acronis Migrate Easy is my tool of choice. If you ever wanted to install a brand new hard disk, migrate an operating system or copy hard drive data - this is the program to use. The utikity even allows one to wipe out data on an old hard drive and re-partition very neatly after the copying process.




The main screen of Acronis Migrate Easy



2. Install The New Hard Disk

Ok, let's assume you've just bought a new hard disk. You want to transfer your data, operating system and installed applications over to the new drive. To do this, you must first install the new hard disk in your computer as a slave hard drive. If you're not sure how to do it, then check out this tutorial on how to install a secondary hard disk drive.


3. Run The Program

Next, you need to run the Acronis Migrate Easy program. The program gives you two transfer modes: automatic and manual.




Selecting either the automatic or manual mode in Migrate Easy



If you specify automatic mode, all it takes is a few simple steps to transfer your data from your old hard drive to the new one. All partitions, applications, folders and files will be copied to the new disk. You're also allowed to make the new disk bootable for even more convenience.

If you select manual mode, there are more options available to you. Some of the things you will be able to do:


Select the partitioning and data transfer method


Define partition information on the new disk


Remove all information from the old disk


Create new partitions on the old disk


Conclusion

With a proper disk transfer tool like Acronis Migrate Easy, you no longer need to shy away when it comes to data transfers between hard disks. The more you transfer data from one hard drive to another, the more expertise you will gain. So go out there and start experimenting!

Reasons Why A Monitor Goes Blank

When I first started to learn to troubleshoot PCs, I found a blank monitor to be one of the most frustrating things I encountered. With the screen blank, there's not a whole lot you can do except to hit the power off button, check the connections and hit the power on button again.
In this article, we'll look at the top 5 reasons why a monitor goes blank. Once you understand the reasons, you'll understand how to troubleshoot the problem more easily.



1. Introduction
Computer monitor problems can be very hard to troubleshoot - I mean, if your monitor goes blank, how do you check anything on your screen. So that's why it's important to have 2 monitors in the house. Usually, if I have my desktop PC's monitor going blank, I'll immediately hook up the video card to another monitor. If the screen remains blank, then it could point to a video card problem. If the new monitor displays an image, then it's probably the first monitor that has run into problems.

A typical computer monitor - don't panic if it goes blank!

Reason 1: Wetness
The number one reason why computer monitors go blank is - wetness. Believe it or not, when your computer monitor is exposed to humid air, sometimes water can condense and accumulate in the monitor. This causes the monitor to malfunction and go blank. I've had this happen to my desktop PC at least three times before. What you need to do is to leave the monitor alone for some time and allow the water to evaporate. That usually solves the problem.

Reason 2: Faulty Graphics Card The next reason why your computer monitor goes black is due to a faulty graphics card. The best way to detect this kind of problem is to connect up a new monitor to your PC, then check if you have a blank screen. If you continue to have a blank screen, then it's likely your video card is faulty.

Reason 3: Faulty RAM This one is less obvious and less common, but it can happen. You might sometimes get bad RAM modules which prevent your PC from booting up even to the basic BIOS startup screen. To detect this kind of problem is more troublesome, you might need to remove those RAM modules and insert them into another computer.

Reason 4: Loose Connections Another reason why your monitor goes blank is due to loose connections. The connection from the monitor to the mains is usually a culprit, as is the connection between the monitor and the video card. Check those connections before you declare your computer monitor as faulty.

Reason 5: A Short Circuit In The Motherboard And the final reason why your computer monitor goes blank? It's possibly because of a short circuit in the motherboard. This is the most undesirable outcome of course, as you might have to replace your entire motherboard. However, it's possible that this can happen - so keep your fingers crossed and hope it doesn't happen to you.

Conclusion And there you have it, the top 5 reasons why your computer monitor goes blank. Make sure you do a mental check of the above points the next time your monitor goes blank - don't be too quick to declare your monitor as faulty. Until next time, happy computer building!

Troubleshooting Tips for a Network Card

1. • Make sure you're using the drivers that are on the driver’s disk that ships with the network interface card (NIC).
   • Make sure the driver is loaded and the protocols are bound. Check the Device Properties list for trouble indicators (an "X" or "!" symbol).
   • Test the NIC adapter with the diagnostic utilities that often came with the driver installation.
   • Check with your LAN administrator - you may need to install additional networking software.
2. If the problem persists, follow these guidelines:
   • Make sure the cable is installed properly. The network cable must be securely attached at both RJ45 connections (adapter and hub). The maximum allowable distance from adapter to hub is 100 meters. If the cable is attached and the distance is within acceptable limits but the problem persists, try a different cable. If you're directly connecting two computers without a hub or switch, use a crossover cable.
   • Try another network cable.
   • Check the LED Lights on the NIC. Before the LEDs can be used for troubleshooting, the network interface card (NIC) must be connected to the network and the network driver must be installed. Most NICs come with LEDs near the connection. The meaning of the LED signals may be different from one manufacturer to the other. Here is a common LED description for 3COM 10/100BT dual speed NIC. Please consult your NIC manual for any difference.

LED	Description	Flashing	Steady (On)	Off
10 LNK	Green: Link integrity	Reversed polarity	Good 10BT connection	No connection between NIC & hub
100 LNK	Green: Link integrity	Reversed polarity	Good 100BT connection	No connection between NIC & hub
ACT	Yellow: Port traffic for either speed	Network traffic present	Heavy network traffic	No traffic

3. The computer hangs when the drivers are loaded.
   • Change the PCI BIOS interrupt settings. See your NIC and system manuals for more details.
   • If you are using EMM386, it must be version 4.49 or newer.
4. Diagnostics pass, but the connection fails or errors occur.
   • At 100BT, use Category 5 wiring and make sure that the network cable is securely attached.
   • At 100BT, connect to a 100BT hub/switch (not 100Base-T4).
   • For NetWare, make sure you specify the correct frame type in your NET.CFG file.
   • Make sure the duplex mode setting on the adapter matches the setting on the switch.
5. The LNK LED doesn't light.
   • Make sure you've loaded the network drivers.
   • Check all connections at the adapter and the hub/switch.
   • Try another port on the hub/switch.
   • Make sure the duplex mode setting on the adapter matches the setting on the hub/switch.
   • Make sure you have the correct type of cable between the adapter and the hub. 100Base-TX requires two pairs. Some hubs require a crossover cable while others require a straight-through cable.
6. The ACT LED doesn't light.
   • Make sure you've loaded the correct network drivers.
   • The network may be idle. Try accessing a server.
   • The adapter isn't transmitting or receiving data. Try another adapter.
   • Make sure you're using two-pair cable for TX wiring.
7. The adapter stopped working without apparent cause.
   • Run the diagnostics program that came with the NIC.
   • Try reseating the NIC in its slot, or try a different slot if necessary.
   • The network driver files may be corrupt or missing. Remove the drivers and then reinstall them.
8. The Wake on LAN (WOL) feature is not working.
   • Make sure the WOL cable is attached and that power is being applied to the computer.
   • Check the BIOS for its WOL setting. Some computers may need to be configured for WOL.
   • Make sure the network cable is fully attached to the adapter.
9. Crossover cable troubleshooting tips. When you work with network cabling, concentrators (hubs or switch), and NICs from different venders, it is possible to connect everything and still have no communication between file servers and workstations.
   When there are several unknown variables, it is difficult to determine which component is broken. Use these tips to isolate the problem.
   • Determine whether your equipment complies with the 10Base-T or 100Base-TX standard. This is particularly important for hubs and switches.
   • Connect a straight-through cable from the PC to the hub. The hub performs an internal crossover so that the signal can go from TD+ to RD+ and TD- to RD- (see How to Make Network Cables). When you look at an RJ-45 connector from the front, pin 1 is identified on the left-hand side when the metal contacts are facing up.
   • Make sure that the TD+ and TD- wires are twisted together, and that the RD+ and RD- wires are twisted together. Using wires from opposing pairs can cause signals to be lost. For a 100Base-TX cable, pins #1 and #2 , and #3 and #6 must be on the same twisted strand.
10. When there is doubt whether a hub is performing correctly, or if the impedance settings are in question, a crossover cable can help you isolate the failing component:
    • Connect a file server and a client PC back to back with a crossover cable to verify that the NIC and network operating system are properly configured.
    • To make a crossover cable, simple connect TD+ to RD+ and TD- to RD-. The cable performs the crossover that is usually performed by the hub. Make sure that two twisted-pair wires are used. If the file server and client PC function together as a small network, then either the existing cabling or the hub is the problem.
    • If there is a proper crossover, the appropriate LED comes on. If there is a straight-through connection, the LED does not light. A blinking LED indicates that there is a polarity mismatch (that is, TD+ to RD- instead of TD+ to RD+).

 

Sound Card Troubleshooting

• Microsoft Volume Control or your mixer program mute options and volume sliders.
• Connect headphones to the stereo phone jack on your CD-ROM drive’s front panel; adjust the volume control settings on the drive. If there is sound from your headphones, check the CD audio cable connection from the CD-ROM drive to the audio card.
• Ensure the speakers are properly connected to the audio card’s output connector.

Joystick port is not working
To troubleshoot, check the following:

• The audio card joystick port conflicts with another joystick port in the system. Disable the audio card joystick port, and use the system’s joystick port.
• The joystick drivers, MSJSTICK.DRV and VJOYD.VXD, may not be installed. Uninstall the joystick, then reinstall to load the drivers. The drivers should come with the driver CD or floppy diskette with your sound card.

Computer hangs or restarts during installation
A hardware conflict may cause the computer to hang or restart during the installation procedure. Check the following to resolve the conflict:

• A hardware conflict with another device in your system.
• Previously installed sound card hardware or software needs to be removed.
• The audio card is not seated in the slot properly.
• PCI bus mastering devices may be interfering with the operation of the audio card. Temporarily remove non-essential PCI bus mastering devices.

Resolving hardware conflicts
Hardware conflicts occur when two or more devices contend for the same resources. Conflicts between your audio card and another device may occur regarding the I/O address, IRQ line, or DMA channel:

1. Right-click the My Computer icon on your desktop, and select Properties. The System Properties dialog appears.
2. Click the Device Manager tab. In the Device Manager, a plus sign(+) represents an expandable list of items. A minus sign (-) represents an expanded list. A circled exclamation mark denotes a conflict.
3. Double-click Sound, video, game controllers. A list of multimedia devices appears.
4. Select your audio card.
5. Choose the Properties button.
6. Click the Resources tab.
7. Uncheck the Use automatic settings option.
8. Change "Settings based on:" if alternate settings are available.
9. Determine the conflict by reviewing the "Conflicting device list".
10. Select the conflicting item in the "Resource Settings" list.
11. Click the Change Settings button.
12. Use the mouse to select a new setting.
13. Select OK to close each of the properties windows, and restart your computer.

Audio card is not automatically detected
To manually configure your audio card for Windows 95/98:

1. Click "Start" on the taskbar, and select Settings from the Start menu.
2. Select Control Panel. The Control Panel group appears.
3. Double-click the Add New Hardware icon. The Add New Hardware Wizard dialog appears.
4. Select Next to continue.
5. Choose Yes to have Windows search for new hardware, then select Next
6. Select Next to continue.
7. Select Finish, and follow the prompts to complete the new hardware installation.

CD does not automatically run when you insert it in the drive
To enable the "Audio insert notification" feature:

1. Right-click the My Computer icon on your desktop, and select Properties. The System Properties dialog appears.
2. Click the Device Manager tab. A list of devices appears.
3. Double-click CD-ROM, and select your CD-ROM drive.
4. Choose the Properties button. The CD-ROM drive properties dialog appears.
5. Choose the Settings tab.
6. Click the "Auto insert notification" option to enable.
7. Select OK until all Properties dialogs are closed, and restart Windows for the changes to take effect.

No sound is heard from speakers
Verify the following:

• Check the Microsoft Volume Control or the Audio Mixer Program mute options and volume sliders.
• Ensure the speakers are properly connected to the audio card’s output connector.
• Check the volume control and power connection of the speakers, if they are amplified. (Refer to the speakers documentation for detailed information).
• Ensure a hardware conflict does not exist between your audio card and another device in your system.
• PCI bus mastering devices may be interfering with the operation of the audio card. Temporarily remove non-essential PCI bus mastering devices. If the device is a display card, upgrade the display card drivers, or set the card to the default Windows VGA mode.

If you are experiencing no sound only during audio CD playback, see "No sound is heard from audio (music) CDs" above.

Static sounds are heard in wave files
Check to see if the static sounds are heard in all wave files. If the difficulty occurs only with certain games, refer to the software manufacturer’s documentation. To troubleshoot static sounds heard in all wave files:

• Try different resource settings for the audio card, or set the card to use low DMA.
• Move the audio card to another PCI slot. Feedback from the power supply or another device may be responsible.

 

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